Thermal alerts courtesy of the HIGP MODIS Thermal Alerts Team (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/). Smaller explosions continued during August 2019 and were reported by PVMBG in 12 different VONAs (Volcano Observatory Notice to Aviation) on days 1, 3, 6, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, and 28. Our previous report (BGVN 36:08) discussed two eruption episodes: one from 25 October 2010 to March 2011, and another from August 2011 to about 1 October 2011. The phenocrysts were up to 3-5 mm in length. They are characterized by frequent but short-lived eruptions that can produce eruptive columns hundreds of meters high. Eruptions at 2253 and 2339 on 16 July, 0847 on 17 July, and 0826, 1549, and 1730 on 18 July produced dense gray-to-black ash plumes that rose 1-2.5 km above the summit and drifted NE, S, SW, and W. Webcam image acquired at 2308 and 2344 on 16 July showed incandescence at the vent.
However, volcanic activity has also provided humans with important resources. CVGHM reported that the number of eruptions from Anak Krakatau increased significantly at the end of March and continued through 5 May. [5], The volcanic explosivity index (commonly shortened to VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions. Steaming and fumarolic activity; cone description. [24][25] On 20 April 2010, Icelandic President lafur Grmsson said "the time for Katla to erupt is coming closewe [Iceland] have preparedit is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption". Seismicity dominated by volcanic earthquakes through at least December 2002. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. Each event lasted for 42-55 seconds, based on the seismic data, and produced ash plumes that rose 300-500 m above the crater rim and drifted N. An event at 0939 on 10 November generated an ash plume that rose 500 m and drifted N. There were 10 events recorded during 1029-1656 on 12 November, each lasting 38-117 seconds, and producing ash plumes that rose 200-700 m and drifted N. Four events were recorded during 0546-0840 on 13 November, each lasting 44-175 seconds, and producing ash plumes that rose as high as 800 m. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4); residents and visitors were warned not to approach the volcano within 2 km of the crater. The volcano has erupted relatively frequently PVMBG reported that multiple ash plumes were visible in webcam images rising from Anak Krakatau during 26-28 October. Ashfall on 2 September prompted officials to recommend that residents and tourists wear masks outside and not venture within 3 km of the volcano. A short time-lapse from April 17, 2010. During the first half of April, explosions from the 1988 crater occurred at the rate of 105/day; during the second half of April, the frequency decreased to ~45/day. WebMount Edgecumbe rises in the foreground with Crater Ridge behind and to the north on May 19, 2022. Visitors and residents were advised not to go within a 1.5-km radius of the summit. About a third of the eruptions were Strombolian, with showers of lava and bombs (occasionally 1 m across) ejected 50-100 m above the vent and falling onto the upper flanks. Some systems use a combination of both. Incandescent material rose 200 m above the vent, which approximately coincided with the 1975 eruption center. Variable eruptive activity from late 2007 to mid-2009; plumes to 3 km altitude. From there, the data were accessible through internet (http://krakmon.vsi.esdm.go.id/). One of our previous reports on Krakatau (BGVN 36:08) discussed two eruption episodes, one spanning from 25 October 2010 to March 2011 and another beginning in August 2011 and continuing through the end of that report, around 1 October 2011. The wattage of Radiative Power increased from August through mid-October, and then decreased through January 2020 (figure 96). None of the events were followed by visible ash emissions, though observations were hindered by fog. The Darwin VAAC reported essentially continuous ash emissions during 3-9 July drifting generally W and SW at about 1.2 km altitude (figure 43). WebThe Youngest Toba eruption was a supervolcano eruption that occurred around 74,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia.It is one of the Earth's largest known explosive eruptions.The Toba catastrophe theory holds that this event caused a global volcanic winter of six to ten years and possibly a 1,000-year-long cooling episode. PVMBG reported that an eruption at Anak Krakatau was recorded by the seismic network at 0932 on14 April. On 22 December 2018, a large explosion and flank collapse destroyed most of the 338-m-high island of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) and generated a deadly tsunami (BGVN 44:03). Max VEI: 2, List of 11 Events for Episode 1 at Anak Krakatau, 1883 May 20 - 1883 Oct 21 (?) An eruptive event on 7 January produced a dense ash plume that rose 200. [55][56] On March 26, PHIVOLCS raised the volcano's alert level status to Alert Level 3 due to a short lived-phreatomagmatic eruption with the evacuation of around 1,100 residents around the area and surrounding towns. Since Wohletz (2000), the date of this eruption is widely accepted as 535 CE (see inset of figure 23 for map representation of the caldera's topographic margin). This can cause major disruptions to air travel. Krakatau volcano, between Java in Sumatra in the Sunda Straight of Indonesia, is known for its catastrophic collapse in 1883 that produced far-reaching pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and tsunami. Visitors were banned from the summit and crater of Anak Krakatau due to toxic gas emission. . "Volcanoes-why and how ." Local tour operators reported a significant increase in seismic activity at Krakatau beginning during July 2001 and continuing through August. A smaller cone within the larger one was almost horseshoe-shaped and steeper to the S. Bombs on the summit cone were as large as 1-2 m in diameter. A webcam at the summit recorded diffuse white plumes rising 100 m from the crater rim. "21 July 1972 between 1345 and 1530 GMT. Strong sulfuric odor or irritating fumes similar to rotten eggs. Activity during March-May 2009. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), and residents were warned to remain outside of the 2-km radius hazard zone from the crater. Some of the blocks were thrown into the sea outside the new crater, ~500 m from the vent. "[4], The indigenous Tlingit people considered the mountain to be sacred. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4). Similar activity continued throughout August, with the addition of a lava flow visible on the S flank that reached the ocean during 4-5 August. A seven-month gap in MODVOLC thermal alerts occurred during the interval 31 August 2008 to 30 March 2009. PVMBG reported that Anak Krakataus seismic network recorded 10 eruptive events during 29 July-4 August. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and from fissure vents radiating out of the center. WebLetters in ovals refer to NPS sites that lie on the accretionary wedge and volcanic arc formed by northward subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath southern Alaska. The PVMBG reported that seismicity was dominated by shallow volcanic earthquakes in February 2017. PVMBG reported significantly increased numbers of daily explosions during the second half of the month. Activity resumes in March after 5 months of quiet; ash clouds and tephra ejection.
A'a lava moves in a peculiar waythe front of the flow steepens due to pressure from behind until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Dense gray and black ash plumes rose as high as 2.2 km from the vent and drifted mainly E, and occasionally S and SE. This evacuation is believed to have saved 20,000 lives. [47] Furthermore, genetic analysis of Alu sequences across the entire human genome has shown that the effective human population size was less than 26,000 at 1.2 million years ago; possible explanations for the low population size of human ancestors may include repeated population bottlenecks or periodic replacement events from competing Homo subspecies.[48]. Such operations tend to provide enough time for humans to escape at least with their lives prior to a pending eruption. [34], These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up 2 to 45km (1 to 28mi) into the atmosphere. Max VEI: 2, 1944
On closer observation it was seen that an underwater eruption was taking place all along the south side of the coast and gases were also seen to be given off from this disturbance. Tephra emission occurred at intervals of 15 minutes to 6 hours. Eruptions around early September 2012 deposited ash on towns in Sumatra, and lava flows extended the shoreline of the island (Anak Krakatau) by ~100 m. The Alert Level was lowered after that and remained low into at least mid-January 2013. Judd J W, 1888. Confirmed Eruption
[17] The volcano erupted again in May 2010, causing the closure of airspace over many parts of Europe. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), and the public was warned to remain outside of the 2 km radius hazard zone from the crater. All of the reports emphasized that the island remains off-limits to visitors. PVMBG reported that during 14-20 October Anak Krakataus seismic network recorded 24 eruptive events. Incandescent lava was ejected to 100-150 m height, with ash from intermittent explosions (at intervals of 3-32 seconds) rising 400-500 m. Explosion earthquakes remained frequent at 1,000-4,000/day, but no A- or B-type earthquakes have been recorded since 11 November. Its nearest active neighbours are Katla, to the northeast, and Eldfell, on Heimaey, to the southwest. Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of steam. An observer estimated that an ash plume rose 150 m above the summit and drifted NE at 1446 on 10 May, but noted that visibility was difficult. "A new cone has been built around the 1978 crater and reaches about 150 m above sea level. After landing they ascended to the first crest line where the group encountered several bread-crust bombs and their substantial impact craters. The most common underwater flow is pillow lava, a rounded lava flow named for its unusual shape. Remnants of this volcano joined to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island which collapsed during the major 1883 eruption. Several eruptive events occurred on 3 August (at 0034, 0115, and 1540), sometimes producing dense black ash plumes that rose as high as 1.5 km above the summit and drifted SW. At 0926 on 4 August a dense gray-to-black ash plume rose 1.5 km and drifted N. Incandescence at or near the vent was seen in nighttime photos on most days. There was no definite signature on GMS satellite images. Plume heights ranged from 100 to 600 m. A seismometer 800 m from the vent recorded neither deep nor shallow earthquakes during April; explosions and rockfalls may have saturated the instrument. Based on observations of satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC reported that a low-level ash plume from Anak Krakatau rose to an altitude of 3 km (10,000 ft) a.s.l. A stronger explosion occurred on 9 September at 0039. Scientists that visited on 8 October 2011 reported degassing and an ongoing seismic swarm then consisting chiefly of M ~1 and smaller earthquakes. Box 16, Chatsworth Island, NSW 2469, Australia. It seems that when the black, fan-shaped cloud spread, it created a blast downward that forced hot steam and gases down the slopes of the crater, accompanied by a shower of hot mud and sand. It was short-listed for the Booker Prize, Nebula Award for Best Novel, and Arthur C. Clarke Award, among other accolades.Unusually, it received awards from both the general Find stories, updates and expert opinion. | June
PVMBG noted ten eruptions on 24 August with white, gray, and black ejecta rising 100-300 m. A webcam installed at months end provided evidence of diffuse steam plumes rising 25-150 m above the crater during 28-31 August. Activity and events during 22-28 December 2018. VSI is discouraging visits to the island until further notice. Kastljsi 22.3.2010, Sjnvarpi, "Vital vi Dr. Pl Einarsson, jarelisfring", Learn how and when to remove this template message, Effects of the April 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruption, Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruption, The World Is a Beautiful Place & I Am No Longer Afraid to Die, "Increasing signs of activity at Eyjafjallajkull in Iceland: Eruptions", "Iceland's volcanic ash halts flights in northern Europe", "Persistent albedo reduction on southern Icelandic glaciers due to ashfall from the 2010 Eyjafjallajkull eruption", "Observing Iceland's Eyjafjallajkull 2010 eruptions with the autonomous NASA Volcano Sensor Web", "Jarskjlftahrina undir Eyjafjallajkli", "Ash chaos: Row grows over airspace shutdown costs", "Met Office: Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres", "Iceland Meteorological office Earthquakes Mrdalsjkull, Iceland", "World's first automated volcano forecast predicts Mount Etna's eruptions", "Iceland prepares for second, more devastating volcanic eruption", "Newsnight Olafur Grimsson: Eruption is only 'small rehearsal', "Stamps created from Eyjafjallajokull volcano ash", "Skondnar skrskotanir til slands: "Ash and molten glass like Eyjafjallajkull", Ash from Iceland volcano could affect UK flights, Volcanic eruption starts on top of Eyjafjallajkull, Iceland, Icelandic volcanic eruption prompts evacuation, flight diversions, A collection of satellite images from the CIMSS Satellite Blog, More from Eyjafjallajkull The Big Picture. Andersen observed further that the "main crater and summit area today seem to be of a more complex and dynamic character than it was before the eruption of September 2012. Seismicity at Krakatau was dominated by volcanic and tectonic earthquakes during 30 December 2002-23 March 2003 (table 3). The ice cap covers an area of about 80 square kilometres (30 square miles),[7] feeding many outlet glaciers. Webcam views showed that at 1757 on 24 October a dense black ash plume rose about 150 m above the summit, and at 2111 a dense gray-to-black ash plume rose 150 m and drifted E. Dense gray-to-black ash plumes were visible on 25 October at 0727, 0956, and 1711 rising 150-200 m above the summit and drifting NE. September 2012 eruption and visit by Volcano Discovery. Increase in seismicity during July through August 2001; ash and bomb ejection. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), and the public was warned to remain outside of the 2-km radius hazard zone from the crater. Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases. From 26 March to the end of the month, 109-230 earthquakes were recorded each day. [50], Products of volcano-ice interactions stand as various structures, whose shape is dependent on complex eruptive and environmental interactions. PVMBG reported that during 13-19 April dense gray eruption plumes from Anak Krakatau rose as high as 50 m above the crater rim, and white plumes rose 25-100 m above the summit. Eruptive activity in recent years was low at Krakatau. Ash emissions continued on 22 September at 1.5 km altitude, with a secondary explosion rising to 2.4 km altitude drifting W. The plume height was based on and infrared temperature measurement of 12 degrees C. Later in the day, an additional plume was observed in satellite imagery at 3.7 km altitude drifting N. PVMBG reported observations of 56 explosions, with 200-300 m high (above the summit) black ash plumes and incandescence at night on 22 September. Both volcanic and tectonic earthquakes were recorded for the week of 23-29 June, with 7 deep volcanic earthquakes, 61 shallow volcanic earthquakes, and 2 tectonic earthquakes detected. This cloud finally shot up in the air, spread, then dissipated, marking the culmination of the eruption, at about 2:30am. During July there were 21 VONAs issued reporting similar seismic events that lasted from 30 seconds to 5 minutes; no plumes or sounds were seen or heard. Agustan A, Kimata F, Pamitro Y E, Abidin H Z, 2012.
Additional information not previously reported of eruptive activity during 2011 and 2013 is also provided. Officials had closed an area of 3 km radius around the vent, but many tourists defied the prohibition and climbed to the ridge 400 m from the summit vents. Ash plumes, ballistic ejecta, and lava extrusion during October-December; partial collapse and tsunami in late December; Surtseyan activity in December-January 2019. A single vigorous fumarole, on the SSW slope of the 1960-81 cone ~50-80 m W of the new 1988 crater, was active about every 5 minutes . Three booming explosions on 17 June coincided with a decrease in the number of volcanic earthquakes, as well as a marked increase in small explosion earthquakes. The seismic system was down during 16 September 2001-25 August 2002. For example, observers reported loud blasts, lava flows, and ash plumes. On his next visit, during 12-14 February, he reported medium to heavy venting from the crater and fumarolic activity that was more intense than the activity during January. WebEyjafjallajkull (Icelandic: [eijafjatlajktl] (); lit. CVGHM reported that from August to 29 October seismicity from Anak Krakatau, and the occurrence of eruption plumes, decreased. Andersen reported that on 7 April, Krakatau started to produce small eruptions from the S part of the crater, the same side as the growing lava dome. | July
PVMBG reported that during 21-28 April weather conditions around Anak Krakatau often prevented visual observations, though white plumes were sometimes seen rising 25-50 m high. PVMBG reported that Anak Krakataus seismic network recorded nine eruptive events during 16-22 September. Mount Edgecumbe (Russian: ), until May 2022 considered to be a "dormant volcano" but since reclassified by the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) as "historically active", is located at the southern end of Kruzof Island, Alaska, about 15 miles (24km) west of Sitka. Max VEI: 2, 1941 Jan 28 - 1941 Feb 12
Precursory signs were not interpreted correctly until after the eruption; the population of the island was evacuated only after the onset of the eruption. [41], Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form maars, broad low-relief volcanic craters dug into the ground, and tuff rings, circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava. "[3], On 23 May 2022 the AVO announced that they had "placed a seismometer and GPS sensor on Kruzof Island to better monitor the Mt. Only fire could be seen in a small crater within the central crater. Visits to the crater were prohibited. Max VEI: 2, 1958 Oct 2 - 1959 Jun 25 4 days
This eruption caused more than 36,000 fatalities, most as a result of tsunamis that swept the adjacent coastlines of Sumatra and Java. During 12-13 November 2011 a photographer noted steady degassing, then observed the start of a 12-hour interval of minor but repeated Stombolian eruptions (see next section). In November 2010, Arnold Binas documented explosive activity, ballistic bombs, column collapse generating pyroclastic flows, and volcanic lightning (figure 24). They were essentially continuous until they gradually decreased and dissipated early on 17 July, rising to 1.2-1.5 km altitude and drifting W, clearly visible in satellite imagery several times during the period. Max VEI: 2, 1946 Jul 25 - 1946 Jul 25
According to news articles, gas-and-ash plumes from Anak Krakatau continued rise and seismicity was elevated during 9-11 November. On 3 September 2012, Andersen wrote that he had heard continuous booming noises half way from Java, and that large booming sounds could be heard in the villages of Carita and Anyar (or Anyer), neighboring villages on the W coast of Java, about 50 km ESE of the volcano. PVMBG reported that during 4-10 November diffuse white plumes rose as high as 200 m above Anak Krakataus active vent. The volcano's hazard status, however, did not exceed 2 (on a scale of 1-4) within the report period. Print. An increase in the volume of white fume from the summit crater was observed beginning 11 February. WebUSS Indianapolis (CL/CA-35) was a Portland-class heavy cruiser of the United States Navy, named for the city of Indianapolis, Indiana.Launched in 1931, it was the flagship for the commander of Scouting Force 1 for eight years, then flagship for Admiral Raymond Spruance in 1943 and 1944 while he commanded the Fifth Fleet in battles across the Information Contacts: Reuters; D. Shackelford, Villa Park, CA.
B) If trend is one of decreasing unrest, volcano may soon go to level 2. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are common in shallow-water environments. Typical seismograms, showing two of the three components recorded on Sertung Island, appear on figure 11. WebA cinder cone (or scoria cone) is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as volcanic clinkers, volcanic ash, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent. which came into existence in 1929 and grew bigger by the day: recent height over 170 m. To people living on the coastal areas of western Java and southern Sumatra the activities are more or less routine and do not cause fear at all. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), and the public was warned to remain outside of the 2-km radius hazard zone from the crater. Krakatau activity continued after the previous report (BGVN 25:05) through October 2000 although intensity decreased relative to the 29 May 2000 eruption.
Damage resulting from the 22 December tsunami. and drifted in multiple directions. Lava extrusion had ended by early September, but tephra emission continued. Most of the explosions lasted for less than two minutes, according to the seismic data. Belk, on passage Durban towards Djakarta. Edgecumbe Trail is roughly 6.8 miles (11km), ascending through taiga and muskeg before becoming steep and ending in a barren landscape of snow and red volcanic ash above the treeline, at about 2,000 feet (610m), with sign-posts directing hikers toward the crater rim. Villagers and tourists were advised not go within a 3-km radius of the summit. A mid-November lava flow reached the NW coast and entered the ocean (figure 5). | March
2014: March
Lava flowed 1 km to the N coast and entered the sea, extending >100 m beyond the shore. | September
Dahren, B., Troll., V.R., Andersson, U., Chadwick, J.P., and Gardner, M.F., 2010, Investigating magma plumbing beneath Anak Krakatau volcano, Indonesia: evidence for multiple magma storage regions, Geophysical Research Abstracts, v. 12, 1607-7962; in7th EGU General Assembly, 2010. According to Andersen, the lava flow had extended the seashore on the E side by up to 100 m, and the E and W part of the crater walls had experienced a partial collapse (figure 34). Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas-driven explosions that propels magma and tephra. Such eruptions tend to be more violent than those which form tuff rings or maars, an example being the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an aulacogen), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali lava or carbonatites. Clicking on the small images will load the full 300 dpi map. Located in the province of Batangas, the volcano is second of the most active volcanoes in the country, with 38 recorded historical eruptions, all of which were concentrated on Volcano Island, near the middle of Taal Lake. Andersen, a professional photographer, visited Anak Krakatau 25-26 February 2017. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), and residents were warned to remain outside of the 2-km radius hazard zone from the crater. Eruption ends in mid-April 2020, but intermittent thermal anomalies continue. . That same day, at around 1219, lava flowed into the sea and produced a white steam plume at the entry point. The eruption earlier in the month had resulted in a new lava flow on the SE flank (figure 37) where the September 2012 lava flow was located. [85] It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar. Based on observations of satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC reported that ash plumes from Anak Krakatau rose to an altitude of 3 km on 27 July 2008 and drifted NW. The new crater was ~80 m wide and 150-200 m in length, with the long axis oriented approximately NNW-SSE. The eruption spewed ashes to Calabarzon, Metro Manila, some parts of Central Luzon, and Pangasinan, in the Ilocos Region, which cancelled classes, work schedules, and flights. Some of the explosions were audible up to 50 km away. A larger explosion in December 2019 produced the beginnings of a new cone above the surface of crater lake (BGVN 45:02). 14 September: Activity was similar to the previous day. On 26 January 2012, CVGHM lowered the Alert Level from 3 to 2, noting that the number of tremor events had decreased significantly. Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Planet Labs, Inc. (URL: https://www.planet.com/); Amber Madden-Nadeau, Oxford University (URL: https://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/people/amber-madden-nadeau/, https://twitter.com/AMaddenNadeau/status/1159458288406151169); Anna Perttu, Earth Observatory of Singapore (URL: https://earthobservatory.sg/people/anna-perttu); Simon Carn, Michigan Tech University (URL: https://www.mtu.edu/geo/department/faculty/carn/; https://twitter.com/simoncarn/status/1211793124089044994); VolcanoYT, Indonesia (URL: https://volcanoyt.com/, https://twitter.com/VolcanoYTz/status/1182882409445904386/photo/1; Christoph Sator (URL: https://twitter.com/ChristophSator/status/1184713192670281728/photo/1); Tom Pfeiffer, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/); Pascal Blond, France (URL: https://pascal-blonde.info/portefolio-krakatau/, https://twitter.com/rajo_ameh/status/1199219837265960960); Alex Bogr, Budapest (URL: https://twitter.com/AlexEtna/status/1211396913699991557); Piotr (Piter) Smieszek, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia (URL: http://www.lombok.pl/, https://twitter.com/piotr_smieszek/status/1204545970962231296); Peter Rendezvous (URL: https://www.facebook.com/peter.rendezvous ); Wulkany swiata, Poland (URL: http://wulkanyswiata.blogspot.com/, https://twitter.com/Wulkany1/status/1214841708862693376). However, Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica's Iraz Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months.
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