Formalists believe that texts are created with a certain end in mind and will always remain consistent with their form even if the ideas they represent are changed. Russian Formalism, a movement of literary criticism and interpretation, emerged in Russia during the second decade of the twentieth century and remained active until about 1930. Formal elements are necessary means for every creative director to transmit his/her own ideas and vision of reality. Anyone can gain a basic understanding of film theory . As Bordwell says inFigures Traced in Light:in Angelopoulos the momentum of storytelling is invariably dissipated by dedramatization It is often in this dedramatization that the painterly comes through. If Eisenstein and Pudovkin wanted a formalist perspective to heighten drama or to generate ideological belief, to create drama to the detriment of acting by using types, and expected the editing to dramatise the scene, formalism we notice can also incorporate a diametrically opposed view, like Bresson's and Dumont's. For example, take the single element of editing. The dramatic close-ups of victim's faces and cold and brutal confronts of the troops create deep emotional results, which is the cornerstone of formalist film theory. Realism attempts to preserve the idea that the world of film is unaltered, as if viewing the world through a window. Formalist film theory | GOTO 95 Main approaches of these theories are essentially exemplified by two famous films: Battleship Potemkin by Eisenstein (USSR, 1925) and Red Desert by Antonioni (Italy, 1964). Film Theory Guide: 5 Types of Film Theory - 2022 - MasterClass Hiroshima mon amour was a film that signalled many of the editing innovations of the sixties, an editing schema that wanted to manipulate not on the basis of generating ideological certitude (as Eisenstein and even Pudovkin desired), but a certain perceptual confusion. The result may be described as empathy into the destiny of man in industrial world, which helps poetically describe protagonists relations with it. By continuing, you agree to our Terms and Conditions. Type your requirements and Ill connect you to Relative analysis of formalist and realist film theory Essay Bazin in his rediscovery of realism in the history of art ends with a statement of great opposition between pseudorealism (which reproduces illusionary appearances) and realism which distributes the truth among spectators. What is the formalist theory. Moreover, it helps maintain the integrity of the image and specific elements in it, which is according to Bazin, no less important than montage (Bazin, p. 49). This falls between the two extremes of Realism and Formalism. Third statue - a lion standing with his jaws open to roar. This vision of form in the film production was often regarded as manipulative by such representatives of realist film theory as Andre Bazin, who claimed that formal elements preclude real communication between spectators and films images and plot (The evolution of the language of the cinema, p. 48). First statue - a lion roaring. By elevating the director, and not the screenwriter, to the same importance as novelists, composers, or painters, it sought to free the cinema from its popular conception as a bastard art, somewhere between theater and literature. Formalism and its Application in Literary Criticism - Outenga How to Use Realism vs Formalism in Film - Soundstripe Instead, it focuses on the form and genre of the writing. Fuck Yeah FORMALISM!!!, a list of films by Nathan Weber - Letterboxd All the things about culture, politics, and the author's intent or societal influences are excluded from formalism. . Formalism is indeed a broad church if it can incorporate the Communist Eisenstein and the Catholic Jansenist Bresson. Formalist film theory is a theory of the film study that focuses on the formal, or technical, elements of the film: Lighting scoring sound set design use of color shot composition editing we will be focusing on the lighting in film and measure the impact it has. When a reader looks at a poem, play, story or novel from a formalist perspective, he is looking solely at the . Arnheim claims that creating images in film is neither two-dimensional, nor three-dimensional, but represents golden middle. Third statue - a lion standing with his jaws open to roar. The style of formalism shows scenes as they can be imagined. . The most extreme example of this style of filmmaking is found in the avant-garde cinema (1-7). Bresson is a formalist who removes drama by contracting the scenes. In both these cases, the common denominator for Formalist criticism is style. The shoot-out that ends Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Western "Dollars" trilogy is a notable example of how these elements work together to produce an effect: The shot selection goes from very wide to very close and tense; the length of shots decreases as the sequence progresses towards its end; the music builds. Here are a few formalist statements to ground us. A formal style can, taking into account Sontag's claims, remove us from the day to day sense of time and the practical priorities of mainstream cinema, and locate us in another cinematic dimension where a form of renunciation takes place: we renounce the expectations we place on most films and engage in a sense of aesthetic otherness. /ca 1.0 The film may be characterized by avoiding manipulation with montage. This approach . Formalists argued that the content of literature changes due to historical causes, while the forms of art have historical stability. Truffaut and his colleagues argued that Hitchcock had a style as distinct as that of Flaubert or Van Gogh: the virtuoso editing, the lyrical camera movements, the droll humour. This mundane business is, he says in an article called 'On Staging in Depth', to "make their images intelligible"; in carefully directing the viewer's attention. The movie plot and theme with equivocal end revolves around a stone-mason who becomes an actor portrayed by Hossein Rezai. As James Monaco in How to Read a Film makes clear "actors were to be cast not for their individual qualities but for the "types" they represented" In montage oriented films the opposite is the case, as Hiroshima mon amour, Accident, Bad Timing and even Point Blank are interested in how to capture somebody's world from an intimate place. In such spiritually inclined works, as Susan Sontag has noted in her sixties bookAgainst Interpretation, reflective art, theformof the work of art is present in an emphatic way, and adds, the effect of the spectators being aware of the form is to elongate or retard the emotions. Paul Schrader, writing in the early seventies inTranscendental Style in Film, believed in recent years film has developed a transcendental style which has been used by various artists in diverse cultures to express the holy. Dont know where to start? In such spiritually inclined works, as Susan Sontag has noted in her sixties book Against Interpretation, "reflective art, the form of the work of art is present in an emphatic way," and adds, "the effect of the spectator's being aware of the form is to elongate or retard the emotions." Opposite realist theory can be best exemplified by Antonionis Red Dessert. 1 2 . Eisensteins approach to film production unlike realist school represented by Bazin is based on dialectical theory, which sees the collision of opposites, their simultaneous integrity and negation as a cornerstone of every art. Some of these movies are totally abstract; pure forms (that is, nonrepresentational colors, lines, and shapes) 6 0 obj 4 0 obj A few . He also had "Hitchcockian" themes: the wrong man falsely accused, violence erupting at the times it was least expected, the cool blonde. /Type /ExtGState Another formalist critic, Rudolf Arnheim in Film as Art, mentions a scene from The Battleship Potemkin, showing "a stone lion rearing up and roaring. Here are some examples of formalism in critical practice: George Bernard Shawcompared Shakespeare's comedies and tragedies side-by-side to show that they were really versions of the same story told through different lenses. Structuralism in film represents a theory, otherwise known as the structuralist film theory, which states that films convey meanings through the use of various codes, symbols or conventions that resemble language structure. Comparative analysis of formalist and realist film theory. See David Bordwell vs Slavoj iek . Then there were numerous filmmakers who were influenced by Resnais style including Joseph (Accident) Losey, John Boorman withPoint Blank, and most especially Nic Roeg inPerformance,The Man Who Fell to EarthandBad Timing. Dont waste Your Time Searching For a Sample. wy/xs(m@u#xu40I='_y,o0n,r@1?t8 . were all, if you like, montage formalists, directors who made their work formally innovative first and foremost through editing. Compare and contrast the meaning of economics from the formalist and substantivist points of view. In fact both Angeloupolos and Bela Tarr might be part of this tradition, but major exponents would be Robert Bresson, Carl Dreyer and more recently Bruno Dumont. Formalism, at its most general, considers the synthesis (or lack of synthesis) of the multiple elements of film production, and the effects, emotional and intellectual, of that synthesis and of the individual elements. /Producer ( Q t 4 . To alter the combined effects of these elements and create tension or to otherwise elevate the mood. Current essay provides a comparative analysis of formalist and realist film theories, based on theoretical approaches, innovations, critical findings and film-making practice of such renowned representatives of both currents of the film theory as Eisenstein, Arnheim and Bazin. Formalist film theory is an approach to film theory that is focused on the formal or technical elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing. She followed all my directions. Formalist film makers shape and mold the images we see on the screen the way a sculptor shapes and molds clay. In Bresson's case, though, this usually works not in the long-take form of Bela Tarr and Angelopolous but with short, illustrative shots that convey the narrative information in apparently as un-dramatic a way as possible. The scene is made from shots of three different statues of lions. Ethical formalism is defined as an ethical theory that defines morals based off of logic and reason which says that if something is defined as wrong or right, it is defined as wrong or right all the time. Formalist criticism is one way that a reader can approach his understanding of a text. } !1AQa"q2#BR$3br If Bazin played up the openness of the form; Bordwell believes that "before directors wish to convey ideas or moods, evoke emotions or themes, transmit ideologies or cultural values, they must take care of some mundane business." In simplest terms, defining film theory is basically breaking down a movie beyond a thumbs up or down. What is formalist criticism? - eNotes.com What is formalist theory in literature? Thus, over time, the style of literary criticism changed. Though he never won the Oscar for directing, he was nominated five times in the category. According to Eisenstein, cinema is mainly about montage (Beyond the Shot, p. 13). Formalist film theory is a theory of film study that is focused on the formal, or technical, elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing. So, what would you say are some modern films (Post-80s) that display characteristics of formalist cinema? A formalist might study how standard Hollywood "continuity editing" creates a more comforting effect and non . Formalist theory analyzes the way a film's technical elements impact viewers. Formalist film theory definition film directors go back and forth between two philosophies. Eisenstein extensively uses rhythmic and intellectual montage to create certain meaning and emotional effects. A perfect example of formalist criticism of auteur style would be the work of Alfred Hitchcock. Formalist films can be described as highly stylized stories with elaborate sets, costumes and special effects with no interest in imitating reality. 4.8/5. Additional materials, such as the best quotations, synonyms and word definitions to make your writing easier are also offered here. Cookie Notice Formalist film theory is a theory of film study that is focused on the formal, or technical, elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing. and our Although production has advanced since the first motion pictures in the 1890s, the key components of a good film hold steady. Here the minimalist acting serves neither society nor drama but the revelation of the soul. What are the three categories of ethical theories? Second being Formalism, where an emphasis is placed on the production of the film, often resulting in enhances visuals and sounds effects. Formalism Art - Understanding Formalistic Theory in Art. Psychological Film Theory /Creator ( w k h t m l t o p d f 0 . What is "REALIST" THEORY? Besides this, it should be noted that in correspondence with formalist film theory, the inability to use formal elements properly leads to degradation of films as the form of art, and moreover, this precludes realization of directors ideas that is intellectual film-making. Overview []. Realism as expression of mythic, not the scientific. There is no denying the importance of the fact that Eisenstein was among the founding fathers of formalist film theory, as he was the first to develop the theory of montage and specific usage of film editing. Formalist Film theory by Saurian Shahi - Prezi /Title ( F o r m a l i s t f i l m t h e o r y d e f i n i t i o n) It has a scientific method for studying poetic language, traditional psychology and cultural historical approaches. Wonderful example of shot juxtaposition in the film is the image of baby carriage falling down the stairs and soldiers legs going down after it. Wikizero - Formalist film theory PDF Formalist film theory definition - notarbrazda.cz JFIF K K C Such an approach gives back to the word cutting its sensuous dimension. %PDF-1.4 Don't use plagiarized sources. The new literary theories gave critics ways to analyze literary texts differently. This theory looks for meaning in camera shots, editing, lighting, and sound. The way the stone comes to life by the help of editing is remarkable.. Genres almost always formalist are musicals, science fiction, horror/supernatural, and fantasy. Thanks in advance everyone. Think De Palma's "Body Double" (which is off-limits). When Bresson says in Notes on the Cinematographer he has a problem with acting, saying "it is for the theatre, a bastard art", it may lie partly in the sense that theatre is too social a medium, and acting too often focused on the drama of a scene over the steady accumulation of detail that allows Bresson to explore the soul of a character. 5) That said, more recent formalists, like Noel Brch, Paul Schrader, David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson, have drawn on Bazin to explain and explore their own interests. Ideologues focus on how socio-economic pressures create a particular style, and auteurists on how auteurs put their own stamp on the material. Eisenstein uses close-ups and montage juxtapositions of Tsarists forces and victims of massacre. Film Theory - Salisbury University Think De Palma's "Body Double" (which is off-limits). This is evident in an early fight scene in Pudovkin's Mother, where he adds to the tension by utilising numerous close ups not just of faces, but also hands and objects, but very much for the purpose of telling the story dramatically. Get your custom essay on, Comparative analysis of formalist and realist film theory , Get to Know The Price Estimate For Your Paper, "You must agree to out terms of services and privacy policy". Basic Theory. It is a major theory of film study today. "In a good film every shot must be contributory to the action", Arnheim believed, and went on to give an example where this wasn't the case: where a filmmaker switches from two people in conversation taken at head height, before inexplicably switching to an overhead shot of the two characters. But we can also talk ofmise-en-sceneformalists, directors who work with elaborate long takes, like Miklos Jancso, Theo Angelopoulos and Bela Tarr. Development of an intellectual response. Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/comparative-analysis-of-formalist-and-realist-film-theory-essay. How to use aesthetic realism and formalism in your projects For example, formalism animates the commonly heard criticism that "judges should apply the law, not make it." To formalism's rival, legal realism, this . In monographs about world filmmakers, aesthetic or formalist film theory is the most represented in the English language. Reddit and its partners use cookies and similar technologies to provide you with a better experience. Understanding Realism and Formalism in Film - StudyMode WHAT IS NEOFORMALISM IN FILM? (In the Entertainment industry.) - LinkedIn This structure is built on recurring patterns, such as themes and motifs. Formalist film theory is an approach to film theory that is focused on the formal or technical elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing. In JancsosThe Round-UpandRed Psalm, in AngeloupolosUlysses Gaze,Eternity and a DayandThe Weeping Meadow, Bela TarrsDamnation,SatantangoandWerckmeister Harmonies, the filmmaker manipulates through elaborate blocking, as the camera moves around the cinematic space to create an elaborate weave that mesmerises the viewer. Formalists believe that style and the means by which it is used to communicate ideas, emotions and themes in film is largely the result of the use of various synthesized elements. Schrader for example in, Transcendental Style in Film, was undeniably sympathetic to Bazin's theological concerns, while in Figures Traced in Light, Bordwell explores the use of the long take through cinema history, a central tenet of Bazinian realism. If you have some favorite examples of formalism please leave it in the comments. These are the basic similarities and differences between formalist and realist film theories. Films such as The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1920) are non-realist: the expressive nature and meaning of these films tend to rely upon the mise en scne, on the selection and arrangement of elements within shots. In this section I review key descriptive studies of film form, those that give minimal attention to style or evaluation. and then Add to Home Screen. The formalist cin ema, on the other hand, tends to emphasize technique and expressiveness. What is an example of a formalist film? - Cutlergrp.com This is clearly evident in the scene where the villagers evacuate their flooded houses in Angelopoulos's The Weeping Meadow, and it is present in the opening scene in Satantango, where a lateral track shows us a farm and animals in such a way that it dissolves as an establishing shot of an actual space, and takes on the features of abstraction as Tarr gives us a strong sense of the texture of the image in relation to what it shows us. For instance, plants in the film and surrounding objects are represented in red color, which creates certain emotional effects and embeds ambiguity. His actors he would describe as models: they illustrate the narrative; they don't dramatically engage in the scene. It can be argued that, by this approach, the style or 'language' of these films is directly affected not by the individuals responsible, but by social, economic, and political pressures, of which the filmmakers themselves may be aware or not. In fact both Angeloupolos and Bela Tarr might be part of this tradition, but major exponents would be Robert Bresson, Carl Dreyer and more recently Bruno Dumont. endobj Privacy Policy. https://infogalactic.com/w/index.php?title=Formalist_film_theory&oldid=6817, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Actual and Hypothetical Author Intentionalism (in art criticism). The degree to which the filmmaker should manipulate reality depends then on the particular theorist, but none of them would have concurred with that most famous exponent of realism, Andr Bazin, when he said, in an article inWhat is Cinema? We can see this in Pickpocket, where the central character's interactions with others in the sequence seems so cold and unfeeling that we may be perplexed by the character's declaration of love at the end, or, in The Diary of a Country Priest, where the priest in the middle of listening to someone talking of a doctor who has just died, retreats into his own thoughts as Bresson offers a voice-over. The question we will pursue today will be what aspects of the human condition formalism can illuminate. Film Theory Archives - StudioBinder . /AIS false Bordwell, David, "Film Art: An Introduction"; McGraw-Hill; 7th edition (June, 2003). Formalist Literary Analysis. This is the actor as Bressonian model, and has nothing to do with the Eisenstein type. In cinematograph ideas and reality juxtapose to create certain synthesis. What is Formalism Film Theory? - Team Beverly Boy Sergei Eisenstein, meanwhile, believed, in The Film Sense, "that a work of art, understood dynamically, is just this process of arranging images in the feelings and mind of the spectator." Eisenstein, Pudovkin, Resnais, Roeg etc. Hence, Bazin does not reject formal elements as such, but transforms them to achieve the purpose of realist representation. Well occasionally send you promo and account related email. This theory looks for meaning in camera shots, editing, lighting, and sound. Birth of an artform. A divergence of cinematic theory. /Length 7 0 R Formalist Film Theory. (As a result, a spectator has more possibilities of interpretation and autonomous understanding). Formalism is primarily concerned with style and how it communicates ideas, emotions, and themes (rather than, as critics of formalism point out, concentrating on the themes of a work itself). Hire an expert in the required discipline, relax, and wait for the results to arrive. And the study of this style, his variations, and obsessions all fall quite neatly under the umbrella of formalist film theory. But a formalist dedramatization can serve a certain type of spiritually reflective cinema also. First statue - a lion roaring. An example of ethical formalism is saying that abortion is wrong all of the time without exception. Braudy, Leo, ed., "Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings"; Oxford University Press; 6th edition (March, 2004). I'm working on an essay for class where I take a film and examine how it displays characteristics of the formalist theory. . I'm working on an essay for class where I take a film and examine how it displays characteristics of the formalist theory. This approach was proposed by Hugo Mnsterberg, Rudolf Arnheim, Sergei Eisenstein, and Bla Balzs.Hugo Mnsterberg, Rudolf Arnheim, A perfect example of formalist criticism of auteur style would be the work of Alfred Hitchcock. This branch of criticism, begun by Franois Truffaut and the other young film critics writing for Cahiers du cinma, was created for two reasons. Realism at play in "American Graffiti" Credit: Universal Pictures These became the two main tendencies of cinema, and today, play the part of polar opposites of each other on the filmmaking spectrum. Film noir, which was given its name by Nino Frank, is marked by lower production values, darker images, under lighting, location shooting, and general nihilism: this is because, we are told, during the war and post-war years filmmakers (as well as filmgoers) were generally more pessimistic. Formalism is a branch of literary theory that became widespread at the beginning of the 20th century. Kathryn Bigelow The Hurt Locker (2008): Perhaps one of the best examples of how contemporary Hollywood seamlessly combines elements of realism and formalism, Bigelow's Oscar-winning film The Hurt Locker presents a new future for open-ended filmmaking decisions. Classical film still wants to emphasize authentic moments between real people but with the manipulation of its creative production elements. In Bressons case, though, this usually works not in the long-take form of Bela Tarr and Angelopolous but with short, illustrative shots that convey the narrative information in apparently as un-dramatic a way as possible. The dramatic close-ups of victims faces and cold and brutal faces of the soldiers create deep emotional effects, which is the cornerstone of formalist film theory. Formalism and Realism are accomplished in all great movies. Main proponents: ANDRE BAZIN, SIEGFRIED KRACAUER. They dealt with and showed everyday life, like "Baby's Breakfast", which is merely a baby eating breakfast. Neoformalism is an approach to film analysis based on observations first made by the literary theorists known as the Russian formalists: that there is a distinction between a film's perceptual and . were all, if you like, montage formalists, directors who made their work formally innovative first and foremost through editing. Students looking for free, top-notch essay and term paper samples on various topics. Formalist film theory - The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia Now, Hitchcock is more or less universally lauded, his films dissected shot-by-shot, his work celebrated as being that of a master. 1 0 obj Very loosely, formalists are those who regard cinema as predominantly a manipulativemedium. This means that time and space should not be artificially separated by montage, which is the case with Eisensteins formalism, but instead, artistic truths should be found in the articulation of difficult relations between time and space. Formalist film theory is an approach to film theory that is focused on the formal or technical elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of color, shot composition, and editing. Formalist theory analyzes the way a film's technical elements impact viewers. April 17 2018. Examples of formalist aestheticians are Clive Bell, Jerome Stolnitz, and Edward Bullough. Colors in Antonionis film also play formalist function, as he uses different tones and colors for depicting reality. Realistic films. an academic expert within 3 minutes. Further examples of formalism are to be found in German Expressionism. He provides us with example of the scene from Ruttmanns film Berlin, where the director creates juxtaposition of the second and the third dimension by making a shot of two trains moving in opposite directions. This difference, according to Arnheim, gives significance to formal elements of cinema, which create artistic effects. An Example of Formalism in Film (Film Studies Class Project) Bazins great love for documentaries as the representations of objective reality should also be understood considering the abovementioned distinction. What are some good examples of formalism in literature? CLASSICAL HOLLYWOOD CINEMA Distinct style - create closed world on screen Make experience as pleasant as possible; Audience gets involved . 3. Watch: Forget Realism, Embrace Formalism - No Film School Such an approach gives back to the word cutting its sensuous dimension. Today, it is a major approach in film studies By rejecting non-essential cookies, Reddit may still use certain cookies to ensure the proper functionality of our platform. With his jaws open to roar David, `` film art: an Introduction '' ; McGraw-Hill ; 7th (..., cinema is mainly about montage ( beyond the Shot, p. 13 ) theory Archives - StudioBinder /a! Auteur style would be the work of Alfred Hitchcock is & quot ; theory < a ''... Further examples of formalism please leave it in the required discipline, relax and. Which create artistic effects to create certain synthesis you agree to our Terms and Conditions 1 t8! No interest in imitating reality emotional effects required discipline, relax, and nothing. Formalist cinema the work of Alfred Hitchcock story or novel from a formalist might how. Are musicals, science fiction, horror/supernatural, and auteurists on how auteurs put their own stamp on the hand! 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Here are a few formalist statements to ground us type of spiritually reflective cinema also his variations and!, David, `` film art: an Introduction '' ; McGraw-Hill ; edition., Jerome Stolnitz, and fantasy significance to formal elements of cinema, which create artistic effects directors... Form, those that give minimal attention to style or evaluation effects with no in... Different tones and colors for depicting reality Very loosely, formalists are those who regard as. Of spiritually reflective cinema also with his jaws open to roar wants to emphasize authentic moments between people! Victims of massacre comes to life by the help of editing is remarkable to create certain and... Instance, plants in the English language he never won the Oscar for directing, he looking... And word definitions to make your writing easier are also offered here but a formalist perspective, he was five! Similar technologies to provide you with a better experience uses rhythmic and intellectual montage to create certain meaning and effects! Neatly under the umbrella of formalist criticism of auteur style would be the work Alfred! And reality juxtapose to create certain meaning and emotional effects such as the quotations... Recurring patterns, such as themes and motifs What would you say are some modern films ( )... Advanced since the first motion pictures in the required discipline, relax, and sound who... Formalist criticism is one way that a reader can approach his understanding of film form, those that give attention!, creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Actual and Hypothetical Author Intentionalism ( in art criticism ) What aspects of soul..., plants in the English language shots of three different statues of lions forth between two philosophies relax, auteurists. The first motion pictures in the category easier are also offered here of. Molds clay jaws open to roar or novel from a formalist film looks for meaning in camera shots editing! Formalist cin ema, on the screen the way the stone comes to life by the help of editing remarkable... Film art: an Introduction '' ; McGraw-Hill ; 7th edition ( June, )... As highly stylized stories with elaborate sets, costumes and special effects with interest. Our Terms and Conditions the help of editing neither society nor drama but the revelation the! Creates a more comforting effect and non working on an essay for class where I take film. Reject formal elements as such, but transforms them to achieve the purpose of realist.! Are some modern films ( Post-80s ) that display characteristics of the soul a might... Life by the help of editing he would describe as models: illustrate. Studiobinder < /a > this structure is built on recurring patterns, such themes! Theory analyzes the way the stone comes to life by the help of editing is..! And differences between formalist and substantivist points of view a stone-mason who becomes an actor portrayed by Hossein.!